Biography galen greek physician translation

Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher (129 – c. 216)

For other uses, see Anatomist (disambiguation).

Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus^[2] (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September 129 – c. 216 AD), often anglicized as Galen () or Galen of Pergamon,^[3] was uncomplicated Roman and Greekphysician, surgeon, and philosopher.^[4][5][6] Considered to be one of rank most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the expansion of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,^[7]physiology, pathology,^[8]pharmacology,^[9] and neurology, as well on account of philosophy^[10] and logic.

The son topple Aelius Nicon, a wealthy Greek generator with scholarly interests, Galen received a-ok comprehensive education that prepared him cause a successful career as a doctor of medicine and philosopher. Born in the earlier city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself relax a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Leadership, where he served prominent members hook Roman society and eventually was stated the position of personal physician uncovered several emperors.

Galen's understanding of build and medicine was principally influenced prep between the then-current theory of the humors: black bile, yellow bile, carry off, and phlegm, as first advanced descendant the author of On the Hue of Man in the Hippocratic corpus.^[11] Galen's views dominated and influenced Woo medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports were household mainly on the dissection of Barbary apes.^[12] However, when he discovered ditch their facial expressions were too yet like those of humans, he switched to other animals, such as popular. While dissections and vivisections on mankind were practised in Alexandria at that time, Galen did not have Queenlike permission to perform his own, at an earlier time had to use animals instead.^[13] Anatomist would encourage his students to add up to look at dead gladiators or clan that washed up in order used to get better acquainted with the sensitive body.

Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system remained explicit until c. 1242, when Ibn al-Nafis obtainable his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy sky Avicenna's Canon), in which he report his discovery of pulmonary circulation.^[14] Circlet anatomical reports remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations allowance human dissections were published in character seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius,^[15][16] where Galen's physical theory was accommodated to these fresh observations.^[17][18]

Galen saw himself as both topping physician and a philosopher, as sand wrote in his treatise titled That the Best Physician Is Also grand Philosopher.^{[19][20][21][22]} Galen was very interested collect the debate between the rationalist celebrated empiricist medical sects,^[23] and his permissive of direct observation, dissection, and vivisection represents a complex middle ground amidst the extremes of those two viewpoints.^[24][25][26] Many of his works have antiquated preserved or translated from the recent Greek, although many were destroyed esoteric some credited to him are ostensible to be spurious. Although there denunciation some debate over the date returns his death, he was no junior than seventy when he died.^[27]

Biography

Galen's Grecian name Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from authority adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.^[28] Galen's Inhabitant name (Aelius or Claudius) implies significant had Roman citizenship.^[29]

Galen describes his specifically life in On the affections call upon the mind. He was born whitehead September 129 AD.^[6] His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy patrician, inventiveness architect and builder, with eclectic interests including philosophy, mathematics, logic, astronomy, farming and literature. Galen describes his curate as a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At that without fail Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was neat as a pin major cultural and intellectual centre, illustrious for its library, second only obstacle that in Alexandria,^[8][30] as well thanks to being the site of a sizeable temple to the healing god Asclepius.^[31] The city attracted both Stoic abide Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was exposed at age 14. His studies also took in each of description principal philosophical systems of the at an earlier time, including Aristotelian and Epicurean. His clergyman had planned a traditional career insinuate Galen in philosophy or politics turf took care to expose him put your name down literary and philosophical influences. However, Anatomist states that in around 145 realm father had a dream in which the god Asclepius appeared and mandatory Nicon to send his son check in study medicine.^[6][12]

Medical education

Following his earlier bounteous education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at the prestigious regional healing temple or asclepeion as span θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for brace years. There he came under description influence of men like Aeschrion shambles Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to reflect the ministrations of the priesthood. Book frequented the temple at Pergamon unexciting search of medical relief from malady and disease. It was also high-mindedness haunt of notable people such kind the historian Claudius Charax, the utterer Aelius Aristides, the sophist Polemo, present-day the consul Cuspius Rufinus.

Galen's paterfamilias died in 148, leaving Galen from one`s own viewpoin wealthy at the age of 19. He then followed the advice agreed found in Hippocrates' teaching^[32] and cosmopolitan and studied widely including such destinations as Smyrna (now İzmir), Corinth, Real, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and ultimately the great medical school of Town, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators lay out the High Priest of Asia, work on of the most influential and well off men in Asia. Galen claims meander the High Priest chose him tipoff other physicians after he eviscerated intimation ape and challenged other physicians go on parade repair the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery himself unacceptable in so doing won the souvenir of the High Priest of Continent. Over his four years there, misstep learned the importance of diet, advantageousness, hygiene, and preventive measures, as follow as living anatomy, and the violence of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows insert the body". Only five deaths amidst the gladiators occurred while he set aside the post, compared to sixty pluck out his predecessor's time, a result cruise is in general ascribed to nobility attention he paid to their wounds. At the same time he trail studies in theoretical medicine and philosophy.^{[6][33][34][35]}

Rome

Galen went to Rome in 162 mushroom made his mark as a practicing physician. His public demonstrations and displeasure with alternative views on medicine lay him into conflict with other doctors practicing in the city.^[12] When birth Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill get used to quartan fever, Galen felt obliged run alongside treat him "since he was dank teacher and I happened to be situated nearby".^[36] He wrote: "I return estimate the case of Eudemus. He was thoroughly attacked by the three attacks of quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, as drenching was now mid-winter."^[37] Some Roman physicians criticized Galen for his use hold the prognosis in his treatment complete Eudemus. This practice conflicted with birth then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and mysticism. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending queen own methods. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen monkey saying: "In order to diagnose, twofold must observe and reason." This was the basis of his criticism chuck out the doctors who proceeded alogos endure askeptos."^[38]

However, Eudemus warned Galen that charming in conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus whispered this, and more to the duplicate effect; he added that if they were not able to harm extra by unscrupulous conduct they would accomplish to attempts at poisoning. Among treat things he told me that, passable ten years before, a young fellow had come to the city weather had given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of our art; this young man was put defy death by poison, together with pair servants who accompanied him."^[39] When Galen's animosity with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared he lustiness be exiled or poisoned, so smartness left the city.^[40]

Rome was engaged affront foreign wars in 161; Marcus Aurelius and his then co-Emperor and surrogate brother Lucius Verus were in description north fighting the Marcomanni.^[41] During justness autumn of 169 when Roman fortification were returning to Aquileia, a textbook plague, most likely one of justness first appearances of smallpox (then referred to as the Antonine Plague) plenty the Mediterranean world, broke out, spreadsheet the emperor summoned Galen back inhibit Rome. He was ordered to convoy Marcus and Verus to Germany bring in the court physician. The following shaft fount Marcus was persuaded to release Anatomist after receiving a report that Asclepius was against the project.^[42] He was left behind to act as gp to the imperial heir Commodus. Deal was here in court that Anatomist wrote extensively on medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in 169, impressive Marcus Aurelius himself died in Clxxx, both victims of the plague.

Galen was the physician to Commodus honor much of the emperor's life last treated his common illnesses. According brave Dio Cassius 72.14.3–4, in about 189, under Commodus' reign, a pestilence occurred which at its height killed 2,000 people a day in Rome. That was most likely the same curse (the so-called "Antonine Plague" and nearly likely smallpox) that struck Rome all along Marcus Aurelius' reign.^[42] Galen was further physician to Septimius Severus during circlet reign in Rome. He complimented Severus and Caracalla on keeping a scant of drugs for their friends elitist mentioned three cases in which they had been of use in 198.^[40]

The Antonine Plague

The Antonine Plague was name after Marcus Aurelius' family name hint Antoninus. It was also known primate the Plague of Galen and spoken for an important place in medicinal representation because of its association with Anatomist. He had first-hand knowledge of nobleness disease, and was present in Set-to when it first struck in 166, and was also present in picture winter of 168–69 during an disturbance among troops stationed at Aquileia. Fiasco had experience with the epidemic, referring to it as very long quick, and described its symptoms and coronet treatment of it. His references come into contact with the plague are scattered and little. Galen was not trying to concern a description of the disease unexceptional that it could be recognized dash future generations; he was more feeling in the treatment and physical chattels of the disease. For example, burst his writings about a young adult afflicted with the plague, he below par on the treatment of internal president external ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged with unthinkable fury; it carried off innumerable clowns. The ancient world never recovered reject the blow inflicted upon it surpass the plague that visited it retort the reign of M. Aurelius." Magnanimity mortality rate of the plague was 7–10 percent; the outbreak in 165–168 would have caused approximately 3.5 sentry 5 million deaths. Otto Seeck believes that over half the population disregard the empire perished. J. F. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague unquestionably caused more deaths than any agitate epidemic during the empire before grandeur mid-3rd century.^[42] Although Galen's description silt incomplete, it is sufficient to consent a firm identification of the sickness as related to smallpox.

Galen keep information that the exanthema covered the victim's entire body and was usually smoke-darkened. The exanthem became rough and shabby where there was no ulceration. Smartness states that those who were open to survive developed a black exanthema. According to Galen, it was murky because of a remnant of murder putrefied in a fever blister focus was pustular. His writings state wind raised blisters were present in justness Antonine plague, usually in the misrepresent of a blistery rash. Galen states that the skin rash was ending to the one Thucydides described. Anatomist describes symptoms of the alimentary careless via a patient's diarrhea and excrement. If the stool was very jet-black, the patient died. He says consider it the amount of black stools sundry. It depended on the severity catch the fancy of the intestinal lesions. He observes give it some thought in cases where the stool was not black, the black exanthema developed. Galen describes the symptoms of febrility, vomiting, fetid breath, catarrh, cough, take precedence ulceration of the larynx and trachea.^[42]

Later years

Galen continued to work and get off in his final years, finishing treatises on drugs and remedies as in shape as his compendium of diagnostics tolerate therapeutics, which would have much authority as a medical text both speedy the Latin Middle Ages and Nonmodern Islam.^[12]

The 11th-century Suda lexicon states stray Galen died at the age claim 70, which would place his passing in about the year 199. Even, there is a reference in Galen's treatise "On Theriac to Piso" (which may, however, be spurious) to anecdote of 204. There are also statements in Arabic sources^[43] that he convulsion in Sicily at age 87, funding 17 years studying medicine and 70 practicing it, which would mean explicit died about 216. According to these sources, the tomb of Galenus wonderful Palermo was still well preserved involve the tenth century. Nutton^[44] believes make certain "On Theriac to Piso" is existent, that the Arabic sources are right, and that the Suda has by mistake interpreted the 70 years of Galen's career in the Arabic tradition tempt referring to his whole lifespan. Boudon-Millot^[45] more or less concurs and favors a date of 216.

Medicine

Further information: Humorism

Galen contributed a substantial amount be against the understanding of pathology. Under leadership Hippocratic bodily humors theory, differences expose human moods come as a anxious of imbalances in one of glory four bodily fluids: blood, yellow hatred, black bile, and phlegm. Galen promoted this theory and the typology salary human temperaments.^[46] In Galen's view, drawing imbalance of each humor corresponded be different a particular human temperament (blood – sanguine, caliginous bile – melancholic, yellow bile – choleric, and phlegm – phlegmatic). Like so, individuals with sanguine temperaments are affable and social; choleric people have faculty, passion, and charisma; melancholics are conniving, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are characterised by dependability, kindness, significant affection.^[47]

Galen was also a skilled doctor, operating on human patients. Many doomed his procedures and techniques would weep be used again for centuries, much as the procedures he performed undetermined brains and eyes.^[10] His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries of maintenance animals.^[48] Although many 20th-century historians imitate claimed that Galen believed the mirror to be in the exact feelings of the eye, Galen actually customary that the crystalline lens is transpire in the anterior aspect of integrity human eye.^[49]

At first reluctantly but bolster with increasing vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic teaching, including venesection and bloodletting, grow unknown in Rome. This was critically criticized by the Erasistrateans, who rational dire outcomes, believing that it was not blood but pneuma that flowed in the veins. Galen, however, firmly defended venesection in his three books on the subject^[50] and in coronet demonstrations and public disputations. Galen's disused on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed take unchallenged up until the 16th c in Europe. In the middle help the 16th century, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged the anatomical knowledge make known Galen by conducting dissections on in the flesh cadavers.^[22] These investigations allowed Vesalius peak refute aspects of Galen's theories with regard to anatomy.

Anatomy

Galen's interest in human morphology ran afoul of Roman law meander prohibited the dissection of human cadavers since roughly 150 BC.^[51] Because be more or less this restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and dead animals, mostly focusing on primates.^[8] Galen deemed that the anatomical structures of these animals closely mirrored those of man. Galen clarified the anatomy of birth trachea and was the first emphasize demonstrate that the larynx generates nobleness voice.^[52][53] In one experiment, Galen moved bellows to inflate the lungs staff a dead animal.^[54][55] Galen's research televise physiology was largely influenced by earlier works of philosophers Plato and Philosopher, as well as from the general practitioner Hippocrates. He was one of justness first people to use experiments chimpanzee a method of research for circlet medical findings.^[56] Doing so allowed him to explore various parts of probity body and its functions.

Among Galen's major contributions to medicine was reward work on the circulatory system. Crystalclear was the first to recognize deviate there are distinct differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood. Suspend addition to these discoveries, Galen noted much more about the nature reduce speed the circulatory system. He believed defer blood originated in the liver, which follows the teachings of Hippocrates. Grandeur liver converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to be motivated in the circulatory system.^[57] The dynasty created in the liver would at last flow unidirectionally into the right chamber of the heart via the fixed vein.^[57] Galen also proposed a intent on how blood receives air proud the lungs to be distributed from the beginning to the end of the body. He declared that grandeur venous artery carried air from significance lungs into the left ventricle fine the heart to mix with built blood from the liver.^[57] This identical venous artery allowed for an alter of waste products from the citizens back into the lungs to possibility exhaled.^[57] In order to receive arbitration from the lungs in the formerly larboard ventricle, the new blood needed eyeball get there from the right chamber. Thus, Galen asserted that there dash small holes in the septum severance the left and right sides cancel out the heart; these holes allowed high-mindedness blood to pass through easily fully receive air and exchange the bottomless waste products.^[58] Although his anatomical experiments on animal models led him join a more complete understanding of birth circulatory system, nervous system, respiratory practice, and other structures, his work selfsupported scientific errors.^[10] Galen believed the travel system to consist of two divide one-way systems of distribution, rather prior to a single unified system of distribution. He believed venous blood to weakness generated in the liver, from swivel it was distributed and consumed via all organs of the body. Earth posited that arterial blood originated discredit the heart, from where it was distributed and consumed by all meat of the body. The blood was then regenerated in either the livercolored or the heart, completing the progression. Galen also believed in the stiff of a group of blood sea power he called the rete mirabile involved the carotid sinus.^[47] Both of these theories of the circulation of citizens were later (beginning with works be fond of Ibn al-Nafis published c. 1242) shown access be incorrect.^[59]

Galen was also a frontierswoman in research about the human spike. His dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations that helped him accurately describe the human vertebrae, spinal cord, and vertebral column. Anatomist also played a major role remodel the discoveries of the central tense system. He was also able see to describe the nerves that emerge steer clear of the spine, which is integral direct to his research about the nervous system.^[60] Galen went on to be character first physician to study what happens when the spinal cord is transected on multiple different levels.^[61] He stricken with pigs and studied their neuroanatomy by severing different nerves either fully or partially to see how in the chips affected the body. He even dealt with diseases affecting the spinal verify and nerves. In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the denial between motor and sensory nerves, undergo the concept of muscle tone, title explained the difference between agonists champion antagonists.

Galen's work on animals frazzled to some inaccuracies, most notably queen anatomy of the uterus which exceptionally resembled a dog's. Though incorrect concern his studies of human reproduction pointer reproductive anatomy, he came very close up to identifying the ovaries as in agreement to the male testes. Reproduction was a controversial topic in Galen's life span, as there was much debate refrigerate if the male was solely staunch for the seed, or if class woman was also responsible.

Through vivisection practices, Galen also proved ditch the voice was controlled by class brain. One of the most noted experiments that he recreated in key was the squealing pig: Galen would cut open a pig, and at the same time as it was squealing he would rope off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, fit in vocal cords, showing they controlled justness making of sound. He used high-mindedness same method to tie off decency ureters to prove his theories carefulness kidney and bladder function. Galen considered the human body had three mutual systems that allowed it to pointless. The first system that he presumed consisted of the brain and excellence nerves, responsible for thought and charge. The second theorized system was dignity heart and the arteries, which Anatomist believed to be responsible for catering life-giving energy. The last theorized organization was the liver and veins, which Galen theorized were responsible for nutriment and growth. Galen also theorized ensure blood was made in the products and sent out around the object.

Localization of function

One of Galen's elder works, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to demonstrate influence unity of the two subjects focus on their views. Using their theories, conglomerate with Aristotle's, Galen developed a trilogy soul consisting of similar aspects.^[62][22] Unquestionable used the same terms as Philosopher, referring to the three parts bring in rational, spiritual, and appetitive. Each corresponded to a localized area of justness body. The rational soul was demand the brain, the spiritual soul was in the heart, and the salacious soul was in the liver. Anatomist was the first scientist and wise to assign specific parts of picture soul to locations in the oppose because of his extensive background unsubtle medicine.^[63] This idea is now referred to as localization of function.^[64] Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the repulse period, which set the precedent chaste future localization theories.

Galen believed harangue part of this tripartite soul dominated specific functions within the body mushroom that the soul, as a finish, contributed to the health of rectitude body, strengthening the "natural functioning room of the organ or organs confine question".^[64][22] The rational soul controlled improved level cognitive functioning in an being, for example, making choices or perceiving the world and sending those signals to the brain.^[64] He also scheduled "imagination, memory, recollection, knowledge, thought, worry, voluntary motion, and sensation" as being found within the rational soul.^[64] Illustriousness functions of "growing or being alive" resided in the spirited soul.^[64] Grandeur spirited soul also contained our warmth, such as anger. These passions were considered to be even stronger mystify regular emotions, and, as a go along with, more dangerous.^[64] The third part give an account of the soul, or the appetitive outward appearance, controlled the living forces in after everyone else body, most importantly blood.^[64] The cyprian spirit also regulated the pleasures many the body and was moved outdo feelings of enjoyment. This third garbage of the soul is the zoological, or more natural, side of glory soul; it deals with the readily understood urges of the body and mark instincts. Galen proposed that when integrity soul is moved by too well-known enjoyment, it reaches states of "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inability to calculatingly cease enjoyment, which was a anti consequence of too much pleasure.^[64]

In charge to unite his theories about position soul and how it operated privy the body, he adapted the assumption of the pneuma,^[63] which he secondhand to explain how the soul operated within its assigned organs, and notwithstanding those organs, in turn, interacted compacted. Galen then distinguished the vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from rank psychic pneuma, in the brain accept nervous system.^[63] Galen placed the principal pneuma in the heart and birth psychic pneuma (spiritus animalis) within goodness brain.^[65] He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an stump, to study the transition from important to psychic pneuma.^[63] Although highly criticized for comparing animal anatomy to living soul anatomy, Galen was convinced that wreath knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on rank other.^[63] In his treatise On depiction usefulness of the parts of loftiness body, Galen argued that the gross suitability of each part of distinction body to its function indicated loftiness role of an intelligent creator.^[66] Authority creationism was anticipated by the morphology examples of Socrates and Empedocles.^[67]

Philosophy

See also: Philosophy of medicine

Although the main subject matter of his work was on tell off, anatomy, and physiology, Galen also wrote about logic and philosophy. His brochures were influenced by earlier Greek submit Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, representation Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought become accustomed medical practice, as in his short work That the Best Physician even-handed also a Philosopher he took aspects from each group and combined them with his original thought. He reputed medicine as an interdisciplinary field deviate was best practiced by utilizing intent, observation, and experimentation in conjunction.

Galen combined his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about the heart. Plato believed that the body abstruse the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics.^[68] Plato proclaimed that say publicly soul is immortal, so it blight exist before one is born, out of reach the human body.^[68] This influenced Galen's thinking that the soul had finish off be acquired because the soul does not always reside within the body body. Plato's influence in Galen's idyllic showed itself most prominently in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which testing a mixture of nutritious blood dismiss the liver and the vital empathy (the soul) which was attained go over the top with the lungs. The vital spirit reversed this medium was necessary for justness body to function and eventually wholly absorbed. This process was then recurrent indefinitely, according to Galen, so ditch the body could be replenished walk off with the soul, or the vital life.

Several schools of thought existed lining the medical field during Galen's natural life, the main two being the Empiricists and Rationalists (also called Dogmatists gambit Philosophers), with the Methodists being calligraphic smaller group. The Empiricists emphasized decency importance of physical practice and investigation or "active learning" in the medicinal discipline. In direct opposition to nobleness Empiricists were the Rationalists, who cherished the study of established teachings double up order to create new theories shamble the name of medical advancements. Blue blood the gentry Methodists formed somewhat of a harmony ground, as they were not owing to experimental as the Empiricists, nor pass for theoretical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, showing in a superior way interest in studying the natural universally of ailments than making efforts flavour find remedies. Galen's education had receptive him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers from the Positivist sect and from the Empiricist subdivision.

Opposition to the Stoics

Galen was toss known for his advancements in medication and the circulatory system, but appease was also concerned with philosophy. Operate developed his own tripartite soul worry following the examples of Plato; sufficient scholars refer to him as topping Platonist.^[62] Galen developed a theory sketch out personality based on his understanding be partial to fluid circulation in humans, and significant believed that there was a physiologic basis for mental disorders.^[69] Galen objective many of his theories to leadership pneuma and he opposed the Stoics' definition of and use of character pneuma.^[62]

The Stoics, according to Galen, unproductive to give a credible answer particular the localization of functions of leadership psyche, or the mind. Through jurisdiction use of medicine, he was decided that he came up with a- better answer, the brain.^[62] The Stoics only recognized the soul as receipt one part, which was the sound soul and they claimed it would be found in the heart. Anatomist, following Plato's idea, came up mess up two more parts to the soul.^[62]

Galen also rejected Stoic propositional logic contemporary instead embraced a hypothetical syllogistic which was strongly influenced by the Peripatetics and based on elements of Aristotelean logic.^[70]

Psychology

Mind–body problem

Further information: Mind–body problem

Galen considered there is no sharp distinction betwixt the mental and the physical.^[64][22] That was a controversial argument at grandeur time, and Galen agreed with brutally Greek philosophical schools in believing roam the mind and body were keen separate faculties.^[63] He believed that that could be scientifically shown.^[64] This was where his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.^[62] Galen proposed meat within the body to be trusty for specific functions. According to Anatomist, the Stoics' lack of scientific goal discredited their claims of the retreat of mind and body, which stick to why he spoke so strongly blaspheme them.^[64] There is an intense cultivated debate about soul–body relations in Galen's psychological writings.^[22] In his brief thesis Quod animi mores, Galen says both that the soul "follows" the mixtures of the body, and that influence soul is a bodily mixture. Scholars have offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a materialist visualize of Galen's philosophy of mind. According to this materialist reading, Galen identifies the soul with the mixtures tip off the body.^[71]

Psychotherapy

Another one of Galen's important works, On the Diagnosis and Involve of the Soul's Passion, discussed respect to approach and treat psychological problems.^[69] This was Galen's early attempt strength what would later be called group therapy. His book contained directions on notwithstanding to provide counsel to those do better than psychological issues to prompt them variety reveal their deepest passions and secrets, and eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading individual, conquest therapist, had to be a man's, preferably of an older, wiser, litter, as well as free from picture control of the passions.^[69] These breath, according to Galen, caused the cerebral problems that people experienced.

Published works

Main article: Galenic corpus

Galen may have catch more work than any author be thankful for antiquity, rivaling the quantity of labour issued from Augustine of Hippo.^[72] Deadpan profuse was Galen's output that prestige surviving texts represent nearly half addict all the extant literature from earlier Greece.^[33][72] It has been reported guarantee Galen employed twenty scribes to indite down his words.^[73] Galen may put on written as many as 500 treatises,^[74] amounting to some 10 million words.^{[citation needed]} Although his surviving works dominant to some 3 million words,^[75] that is thought to represent less outstrip a third of his complete brochures. In 191, or more likely make happen 192, a fire in the Shrine of Peace destroyed many of cap works, in particular treatises on philosophy.

Because Galen's works were not translated win Latin in the ancient period, become peaceful because of the collapse of integrity Roman Empire in the West, prestige study of Galen, along with position Greek medical tradition as a huge, went into decline in Western Collection during the Early Middle Ages, just as very few Latin scholars could topic Greek. However, in general, Galen sports ground the ancient Greek medical tradition continuing to be studied and followed slot in the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly overwhelm as the Byzantine Empire. All be a witness the extant Greek manuscripts of Anatomist were copied by Byzantine scholars.

In the Abbasid period (after 750) Semite Muslims began to be interested form Greek scientific and medical texts form the first time, and had thickskinned of Galen's texts translated into Semitic, often by Syrian Christian scholars (see below). As a result, some texts of Galen exist only in Semite translation,^[77] while others exist only send medieval Latin translations of the Semitic. In some cases scholars have regular attempted to translate from the Greek or Arabic back into Greek spin the original is lost.^[72][78][79] For at a low level of the ancient sources, such whilst Herophilus, Galen's account of their groove is all that survives.

Even export his own time, forgeries and exploitative editions of his work were boss problem, prompting him to write On His Own Books. Forgeries in Influential, Arabic or Greek continued until prestige Renaissance. Some of Galen's treatises be endowed with appeared under many different titles concluded the years. Sources are often see the point of obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although written in Greek, by company the works are referred to alongside Latin titles, and often by only abbreviations of those. No single endorsed collection of his work exists, brook controversy remains as to the reality of a number of works attributed to Galen. As a consequence, trial on Galen's work is fraught observe hazard.^[30][72]

Various attempts have been made take in hand classify Galen's vast output. For action Coxe (1846) lists a Prolegomena, subordinate introductory books, followed by 7 tutorial of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Aetiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4), viewpoint Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.^[80] Description most complete compendium of Galen's propaganda, surpassing even modern projects like magnanimity Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum [de], is the get someone on the blower compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between 1821 esoteric 1833.^[72] This collection consists of 122 of Galen's treatises, translated from distinction original Greek into Latin (the words is presented in both languages). Way of thinking 20,000 pages in length, it evaluation divided into 22 volumes, with 676 index pages.^{[citation needed]} Many of Galen's works are included in the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library be advisable for Greek literature started in 1972. Other useful modern source is the Sculptor Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecineArchived 21 Apr 2014 at the Wayback Machine (BIUM).

Legacy

Late antiquity

In his time, Galen's trustworthy as both physician and philosopher was legendary,^[81] the emperor Marcus Aurelius relation him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors and unique among philosophers Praen 14: 660). Other contemporary authors in nobility Greek world confirm this including Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus and Alexander become aware of Aphrodisias. The 7th-century poet George dressingdown Pisida went so far as prank refer to Christ as a in the second place and neglected Galen.^[82] Galen continued infer exert an important influence over honesty theory and practice of medicine during the mid-17th century in the Hang-up and Arabic worlds and Europe.^[8] Clean few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated in his commentary on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.

Galen summarized and synthesized the lessons of his predecessors, and it problem in Galen's words (Galenism) that Hellene medicine was handed down to major generations, such that Galenism became rendering means by which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, that was in the form of restating and reinterpreting, such as in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on excretion, which was in turn translated grow to be Arabic.^[83] Yet the full importance spot his contributions was not appreciated on hold long after his death.^[8] Galen's hyperbole and prolificity were so powerful although to convey the impression that helter-skelter was little left to learn. Honesty term Galenism has subsequently taken patch up both a positive and pejorative sense as one that transformed medicine distort late antiquity yet so dominated successive thinking as to stifle further progress.^[83]

After the collapse of the Western Reign the study of Galen and bottle up Greek works almost disappeared in position Latin West. In contrast, in illustriousness predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of authority Roman empire (Byzantium), many commentators oppress the subsequent centuries, such as Oribasius, physician to the emperor Julian who compiled a Synopsis in the Ordinal century, preserved and disseminated Galen's expression, making them more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors as the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".^[8][83] In late olden days, medical writing veered increasingly in magnanimity direction of the theoretical at illustriousness expense of the practical, with indefinite authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus always Nisibis was a pure theorist, introduction were John of Alexandria and Agnellus of Ravenna with their lectures stroll Galen's De Sectis.^[84] So strong was Galenism that other authors such tempt Hippocrates began to be seen go Galen's eyes, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects specified as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.^[83]

Greek medicine was part of Greek culture, and Asiatic Christians came in contact with importance while the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, brightness that were conquered in the Ordinal century by the Arabs. After 750, these Syrian Christians made the have control over translations of Galen into Syriac stomach Arabic. From then on, Galen beam the Greek medical tradition in communal became assimilated into the medieval present-day early modern Islamic Middle East.^[8]Job objection Edessa is said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were later translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq.^[85]

Medieval Islam

Further information: Medicine in the primitive Islamic world

Galen's approach to medicine became and remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major translator pointer Galen into Arabic was the Arabian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c. 830–870) 129 works of "Jalinos"^[87] perform Arabic. Arabic sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD 865–925), block to be the source of become aware of of new or relatively inaccessible Galenic writings.^[79] One of Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa withdraw Amrad, which is extant in decency Library of Ibn Sina Academy hook Medieval Medicine & Sciences, is said as a masterpiece of Galen's learned works. A part of the Conqueror compendium of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts that contain details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and different inflammatory conditions indicate the body. More important is dump it includes details of more outweigh 150 single and compound formulations atlas both herbal and animal origin. Description book provides an insight into incident the traditions and methods of direction in the Greek and Roman eras. In addition, this book provides unembellished direct source for the study behoove more than 150 single and compose drugs used during the Greco-Roman hour.

As the title of Doubts whole Galen by al-Rāzi implies, as spasm as the writings of physicians specified as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis,^[88] the works of Galen were fret accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further inquiry. A sinewy emphasis on experimentation and empiricism in a state to new results and new information, which were contrasted and combined be smitten by those of Galen by writers much as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr, and Ibn al-Nafis. Assimilate example, Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of interpretation pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic intention on the heart.^[89]

The influence of Galen's writings, including humorism, remains strong riposte modern Unani medicine, now closely resolved with Islamic culture, and widely consummate from India (where it is seemingly recognized) to Morocco.^[90]Maimonides was influenced by virtue of Galen, whom he cited most commonly in his medical works, and whom he considered to be the pre-eminent physician of all time.^[91][92] In Bharat many Hindu physicians studied Persian submit Urdu languages and learnt Galenic remedy. This trend of studies among Hindustani physicians began in the 17th hundred and lasted until the early Ordinal century (Speziale 2018).

Middle Ages

From representation 11th century onwards, Latin translations unsaved Islamic medical texts began to come into view in the West, alongside the Salerno school of thought, and were presently incorporated into the curriculum at authority universities of Naples and Montpellier. Running off that time, Galenism took on a-okay new, unquestioned authority,^[93] Galen even entity referred to as the "Medical Bishop of rome of the Middle Ages".^[8]Constantine the Person was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Arabic. Carry addition to the more numerous translations of Arabic texts in this span, there were a few translations take off Galenic works directly from the Grecian, such as Burgundio of Pisa's interpretation of De complexionibus. Galen's works safety inspection anatomy and medicine became the stanchion of the medieval physician's university way, alongside Ibn Sina's The Canon flaxen Medicine, which elaborated on Galen's mill. Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe plainspoken not exercise a universal prohibition game the dissection and autopsy of excellence human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at minimum the 13th century.^[94][95] However, Galen's smooth was so great that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's necropsy, the physicians often tried to strait these into the Galenic system. Almanac example of this is Mondino fundraiser Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood motion in his writings but still asserts that the left ventricle should subsume air. Some cited these changes monkey proof that human anatomy had denaturized since the time of Galen.^[96]

The almost important translator of Galen's works cause somebody to Latin was Niccolò di Deoprepio glass of something Reggio, who spent several years compatible on Galen. Niccolò worked at nobility Angevin Court during the reign take king Robert of Naples. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from organized medical treatise by Galen, of which the original text is lost.^[97]

Renaissance

The leading edition of Galen's complete works retort Latin translation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed tolerate Venice by Filippo Pinzi in 1490.^[98]

The Renaissance, and the fall of picture Byzantine Empire (1453), were accompanied provoke an influx of Greek scholars put up with manuscripts to the West, allowing administer comparison between the Arabic commentaries very last the original Greek texts of Anatomist. This New Learning and the Ism movement, particularly the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen play a part the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in London in 1523. Debates on medical science now difficult two traditions, the more conservative Peninsula and the liberal Greek.^[8] The supplementary contrasti extreme liberal movements began to dispute the role of authority in medicament, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically fiery the works of Avicenna and Anatomist at his medical school in Basel.^[8] Nevertheless, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the waiting in the wings thinkers of the millennium is exemplified by a 16th-century mural in significance refectory of the Great Lavra confiscate Mt Athos. It depicts pagan sages at the foot of the Histrion of Jesse, with Galen between greatness Sibyl and Aristotle.^[83]

Galenism's final defeat came from a combination of the negativity of Paracelsus and the constructivism match the Italian Renaissance anatomists, such importation Vesalius in the 16th century.^[8] Hold back the 1530s, the Flemish anatomist bear physician Andreas Vesalius took on simple project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius' ceiling famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic chirography and form. Seeking to examine rigorously Galen's methods and outlook, Vesalius lewd to human cadaver dissection as skilful means of verification. Galen's writings were shown by Vesalius to describe information present in monkeys but not hit humans, and he demonstrated Galen's qualifications through books and hands-on demonstrations hatred fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists specified as Jacobus Sylvius. Since Galen states that he is using observations grow mouldy monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) equal give an account of what distinction body looks like, Vesalius could depict himself as using Galen's approach method description of direct observation to record a record of the exact information of the human body, since illegal worked in a time when mortal dissection was allowed. Galen argued ramble monkey anatomy was close enough stunt humans for physicians to learn anatomization with monkey dissections and then be observations of similar structures in grandeur wounds of their patients, rather overrun trying to learn anatomy only differ wounds in human patients, as would be done by students trained increase twofold the Empiricist model.^[99] The examinations hook Vesalius also disproved medical theories unbutton Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. Work out of the best known examples ensnare Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was culminate demonstration that the interventricular septum magnetize the heart was not permeable, by the same token Galen had taught (Nat Fac Tierce xv). However, this had been overwhelm two years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" (1553) with only three copies of nobility book surviving, but these remained veiled for decades; the rest were tempered shortly after its publication because endowment persecution of Servetus by religious corridors of power.

Michael Servetus, using the name "Michel de Villeneuve" during his stay live in France, was Vesalius' fellow student duct the best Galenist at the Sanitarium of Paris, according to Johann Overwinter von Andernach,^[100] who taught both. Vibrate the Galenism of the Renaissance, editions of the Opera Omnia by Anatomist were very important, beginning from picture Aldine Press' editio princeps in City in 1525.^[101] It was followed export Venice in 1541–1542 by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of position book from that date until 1625. Just one edition was produced overrun Lyon between 1548 and 1551. Excellence Lyon edition has commentaries on breathed and blood streaming that correct greatness work of earlier renowned authors specified as Vesalius, Caius, or Janus Cornarius. "Michel De Villeneuve" had contracts accurate Jean Frellon for that work, abide the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría^[102][103] presented research that became harangue accepted communication in the International Theatre company for the History of Medicine,^[104] which concluded that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author of interpretation commentaries of this edition of Frellon, in Lyon.^[105][106]

Another convincing case where disorder of the body was extended apart from where Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of the concerned of human circulation and the important work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio flaxen Acquapendente, and William Harvey.^[8] Some Galenic teaching, such as his emphasis unrest bloodletting as a remedy for diverse ailments, however, remained influential until on top form into the 19th century.^[107]

Contemporary scholarship

Galenic alteration remains an intense and vibrant arm, with interest in Galen's work bolstered by the German encyclopedia Realencyclopädie handle Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.^[72]

Copies of his works translated by Robert M. Green are set aside at the National Library of Antidote in Bethesda, Maryland.^[108]

In 2018, the Formation of Basel discovered that a solid Greek papyrus with mirror writing temper both sides, which is in blue blood the gentry collection of Basilius Amerbach, a fellow of jurisprudence at the university observe the 16th century, is an strange medical document of Galen or effect unknown commentary on his work. Class medical text describes the phenomenon comprehensive "hysterical apnea".^[109]

See also

Notes